Survival: Tropical Weather

Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.

A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.

Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate. Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.

Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.

High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.

Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.

Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows from the landmass of China.

Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.

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Medical: Desert Survival: Precautions

In a desert survival situation, take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during the day. Work during the cool evenings and nights. Observe the following guidelines:

* Make sure you tell someone where you are going and when you will return.
* Watch for signs of heat injury. If someone complains of tiredness or wanders away from the group, he may be a heat casualty.
* Drink water at least once an hour.
* Get in the shade when resting; do not lie directly on the ground.
* Do not take off your shirt and work during the day.
* Check the color of your urine. A light color means you are drinking enough water, a dark color means you need to drink more.

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Food: Cranberry

Cranberry
Vaccinium macrocarpon

Description: This plant has tiny leaves arranged alternately. Its stem creeps along the ground. Its fruits are red berries.

Habitat and Distribution: It only grows in open, sunny, wet areas in the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible Parts: The berries are very tart when eaten raw. Cook in a small amount of water and add sugar, if available, to make a jelly.

Other Uses: Cranberries may act as a diuretic. They are useful for treating urinary tract infections.

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Animals: Moose

Not exactly a reindeer, but close enough.

The moose inhabits Canada and the United States, and they are found widespread in both these countries.

A large moose can stand about 2 metres tall at the shoulder, and be over 3 metres in length, and weigh up to 500 kgs. They are strange looking creatures, and one of the most distinct features (which also sets it apart from deer or elk) is the flap of skin known as the bell, which hands from its throat.

Due to their size, they have little predators. Wolves will often prey on moose, but usually only if the moose is very young, or sick. Bears will also occasionally prey on the moose.

Did you know? The moose is the largest member of the deer family.

Moose are herbivores, and will eat plant type foods. They feed on twigs and leaves of trees. They will also often wander into water two metres deep, to feed on water lillies.

The male moose is called a bull. The female moose is called a cow.

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Survival: Desert: Environmental Factors

Surviving in an arid area depends on what you know and how prepared you are for the environmental conditions you will face. Determine what equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the environment's impact on you.

In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that you must consider--

* Low rainfall.
* Intense sunlight and heat.
* Wide temperature range.
* Sparse vegetation.
* High mineral content near ground surface.
* Sandstorms.
* Mirages.

Low Rainfall

Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival situation, you must first consider "How much water do I have?" and "Where are other water sources?"

Intense Sunlight and Heat

Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C (140 degrees F) during the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat (the sun's rays bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct contact with the desert sand and rock.

The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than that of the air. For instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110 degrees F), the sand temperature may be 60 degrees C (140 degrees F).

Intense sunlight and heat increase the body's need for water. To conserve your body fluids and energy, you will need a shelter to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to lessen your use of water.

Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense sunlight will malfunction.

Wide Temperature Range

Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees C during the day and as low as 10 degrees C during the night. The drop in temperature at night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the best times to work or travel. If your plan is to rest at night, you will find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap extremely helpful.

Sparse Vegetation

Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your movements.

Follow the principles of desert camouflage--

* Seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker growths of vegetation and cover from oblique observation.
* Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcropping. The temperature in shaded areas will be 11 to 17 degrees C cooler than the air temperature.
* Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.

The emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate distance by a factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer away is really 3 kilometers away.

High Mineral Content

All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.

Sandstorms

Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts. The "Seistan" desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 3.2 to 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) and can reach 112 to 128 kph in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and dust storms at least once a week.

The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth. If natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie down, and sit out the storm.

Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for signaling, such as pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels, if available.

Mirages

Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.

This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as "islands."

If you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when there is little likelihood of mirage.

Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. Sound carries very far.

Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous. You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting, observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.

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Medical: Desert Survival: Need for Water

NEED FOR WATER

The subject of man and water in the desert has generated considerable interest and confusion since the early days of World War II when the U. S. Army was preparing to fight in North Africa. At one time the U. S. Army thought it could condition men to do with less water by progressively reducing their water supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It caused hundreds of heat casualties.

A key factor in desert survival is understanding the relationship between physical activity, air temperature, and water consumption. The body requires a certain amount of water for a certain level of activity at a certain temperature. For example, a person performing hard work in the sun at 43 degrees C requires 19 liters of water daily. Lack of the required amount of water causes a rapid decline in an individual's ability to make decisions and to perform tasks efficiently.

Your body's normal temperature is 36.9 degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Your body gets rid of excess heat (cools off) by sweating. The warmer your body becomes--whether caused by work, exercise, or air temperature--the more you sweat. The more you sweat, the more moisture you lose. Sweating is the principal cause of water loss. If a person stops sweating during periods of high air temperature and heavy work or exercise, he will quickly develop heat stroke. This is an emergency that requires immediate medical attention.

Figure 13-2 shows daily water requirements for various levels of work. Understanding how the air temperature and your physical activity affect your water requirements allows you to take measures to get the most from your water supply. These measures are--

* Find shade! Get out of the sun!
* Place something between you and the hot ground.
* Limit your movements!
* Conserve your sweat.

Roll the sleeves down, cover your head, and protect your neck with a scarf or similar item. These steps will protect your body from hot-blowing winds and the direct rays of the sun. Your clothing will absorb your sweat, keeping it against your skin so that you gain its full cooling effect. By staying in the shade quietly, fully clothed, not talking, keeping your mouth closed, and breathing through your nose, your water requirement for survival drops dramatically.

* If water is scarce, do not eat. Food requires water for digestion; therefore, eating food will use water that you need for cooling.

Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for water. A person who uses thirst as a guide will drink only two-thirds of his daily water requirement. To prevent this "voluntary" dehydration, use the following guide:

* At temperatures below 38 degrees C, drink 0.5 liter of water every hour.
* At temperatures above 38 degrees C, drink 1 liter of water every hour.

Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body remain cool and decreases sweating. Even when your water supply is low, sipping water constantly will keep your body cooler and reduce water loss through sweating. Conserve your fluids by reducing activity during the heat of day. Do not ration your water! If you try to ration water, you stand a good chance of becoming a heat casualty.



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Food: Coltsfoot

Coltsfoot
Petasites spp. (a.k.a. Tussilago spp.)

Description: This perennial herb rises from a thick creeping rhizome, with large basal leaves. The flower stalk grows up to 30 cm tall in early spring, fruiting and dying usually before the leaves show. The flowers are purple, white or yellow, the stem reddish. The leaves are from thumb size to 30 cm.

Habitat & Distribution: Coltsfoot can be found on stream banks, in swamps and wet tundra. It ranges from Alaska to Washington and into Alberta.

Edible parts and other uses: The young flowering stem is a tasty spring vegetable, steamed, or stir fried. The young leaves are also edible. The rootstock may be roasted and then eaten.

The most common use for this herb is cough suppression. It is applied to cases of whooping cough, asthma, bronchial congestion and shortness of breath. It was used (in the form of a smudge) by many Natives to cure problems caused by smoking too much. It has also been used for menstrual cramps.

Externally, a decoction or poultice can be made to alleviate the discomfort of sores, insect bites and arthritic pain.

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Animals: Canadian Lynx

Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis)

The Canadian Lynx stands about 30-40 cms tall, and ranges in length from about 90-110 cms. They weigh anywhere between 10-20 kgs. The lynx has characteristics that stand out, such as its amazing triangular shaped ears with black tufts at the end. The lynx usually has thick light brown or grayish colored fur which helps to keep it warm during cold winters. They have large paws which assist them in moving fast through the snow.

The Canadian Lynx inhabits Canada, and also the northern United States and Alaska.

These cats are too small to hunt people, but will hunt domesticated cats and birds, etc. The lynx is a carnivorous animal, meaning that it only feeds on meat. The lynx feeds on the snowshoe hare wherever possible, and will feed solely on these if given the opportunity. Their sharp claws and teeth aid them in their hunt, and they can bring down animals as large as a deer. The lynx is also known to store food for later consumption, and they do this by covering the carrion (dead animal) with snow.

They are agile creatures, and can climb trees with ease. They will use their position in a tree as a vantage point, spotting potential prey. Once spotted, they can leap from the branch and pounce on their prey.

After the lynx has bought down its prey, and ready to feast it may be interrupted by animals such as the wolverine. The wolverine will growl and snare at the lynx, and the lynx will not contest with the wolverine, leaving its fresh kill for the other animal.

Fact: The Canadian lynx will cover its prey with snow for later feeding.

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Survival: Desert Terrain

To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the environment you will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will use, and how the environment will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic climatic elements, your ability to cope with these elements, and your will to survive.

Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic desert terrain types are--

* Mountainous (High Altitude).
* Rocky plateau.
* Sand dunes.
* Salt marshes.
* Broken, dissected terrain ("gebel" or "wadi").

Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding. Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited; therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.
Mountain Deserts

Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and deposit sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.

Rocky Plateau Deserts

Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled, eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an example of a rocky plateau desert.

Sandy or Dune Deserts

Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel. "Flat" is a relative term, as some areas may contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters high and 16 to 24 kilometers long. Trafficability in such terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the dunes and the texture of the sand. Other areas, however, may be flat for 3,000 meters and more. Plant life may vary from none to scrub over 2 meters high. Examples of this type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty quarter of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa.

Salt Marshes

Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.

In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.

Broken Terrain

All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain. Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters wide and 2 meters deep to several hundred meters wide and deep. The direction it takes varies as much as its width and depth. It twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move through it because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.

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Medical: Desert survival: Issues with Heat

Your chances of becoming a heat casualty as a survivor are great, due to injury, stress, and lack of critical items of equipment. Following are the major types of heat casualties and their treatment when little water and no medical help are available.

Heat Cramps

The loss of salt due to excessive sweating causes heat cramps. Symptoms are moderate to severe muscle cramps in legs, arms, or abdomen. These symptoms may start as a mild muscular discomfort. You should now stop all activity, get in the shade, and drink water. If you fail to recognize the early symptoms and continue your physical activity, you will have severe muscle cramps and pain. Treat as for heat exhaustion, below.

Heat Exhaustion

A large loss of body water and salt causes heat exhaustion. Symptoms are headache, mental confusion, irritability, excessive sweating, weakness, dizziness, cramps, and pale, moist, cold (clammy) skin. Immediately get the patient under shade. Make him lie on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Sprinkle him with water and fan him. Have him drink small amounts of water every 3 minutes. Ensure he stays quiet and rests.

Heat Stroke

A severe heat injury caused by extreme loss of water and salt and the body's inability to cool itself. The patient may die if not cooled immediately. Symptoms are the lack of sweat, hot and dry skin, headache, dizziness, fast pulse, nausea and vomiting, and mental confusion leading to unconsciousness. Immediately get the person to shade. Lay him on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Pour water on him (it does not matter if the water is polluted or brackish) and fan him. Massage his arms, legs, and body. If he regains consciousness, let him drink small amounts of water every 3 minutes.

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Food: Chicory

Chicory
Cichorium intybus

Description: This plant grows up to 1.8 meters tall. It has leaves clustered at the base of the stem and some leaves on the stem. The base leaves resemble those of the dandelion. The flowers are sky blue and stay open only on sunny days. Chicory has a milky juice.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for chicory in old fields, waste areas, weedy lots, and along roads. It is a native of Europe and Asia, but is also found in Africa and most of North America where it grows as a weed.

Edible Parts: All parts are edible. Eat the young leaves as a salad or boil to eat as a vegetable. Cook the roots as a vegetable. For use as a coffee substitute, roast the roots until they are dark brown and then pulverize them.

Animals: The White-Tailed Deer

Where they live?

This deer can be found in southern regions of Canada in the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario.

It likes the wooded areas where it can hide in the trees and eat leaves.

Appearance

The white-tailed deer is about 2 metres in length and 1 metre high to the shoulders.

Males have large antlers that make them look taller. They shed the antlers in the winter but a new set grows in the summer.

In the summer the back and sides of the deer's coat are brown. In the winter the brown coat turns greyish. The stomach and insides of the legs are white. The underside of the tail is white.

Food

Deer eat grasses and leaves. They will also eat mushrooms and berries. In the winter deer nibble on twigs and buds. Deer also eat the grain that is left in farmers' fields after the harvest.

The white-tailed deer eats its food twice. It has four stomachs. The deer starts eating early in the morning. It gobbles down grass and leaves to fill the first stomach. Then while it takes a rest the food goes into the second stomach where it turns into little balls. Now the deer can bring the food back up to its mouth and chew it well. The chewed food goes to the third and fourth stomachs.

The young

One or two fawns are born in May. They are able to stand and walk shortly after birth. Newborns are protected by a lack of scent. Their enemies cannot smell them. The mother keeps the young fawns hidden in the thick bushes. Fawns' coats have hundreds of white spots which disappear when they are 3 to 4 months old.

The mother does not stay with the fawns but checks up on them 5 or 6 times during the day to feed them. The young deer stay with their mothers for one or two years.

A buck fawn (young male) has bumps on his skull where the antlers will grow.

Enemies

Man, the wolf, lynx, coyote, bobcat and cougar are the deer's enemies. Even though a deer is very fast a pack of wolves or coyotes is able to catch them. The deer cannot run fast if the ground is covered with deep snow. The deer's thin legs sink into the deep snow.

Protection and adaptations

When the deer is alarmed it raises its tail like a flag and dashes away. The flash of white fur warns the other deer.

Deer have a keen sense of smell, good hearing and good eyesight.

With its antlers and sharp hooves the male deer can sometimes kill a wolf. It will butt the wolf with its horns and then stamp on it with its feet.

To prepare for the winter deer grow a thick coat and eat a lot of food to store up body fat. If it is a very long and cold winter deer may gather in small groups for protection from the cold.

Survival: Windchill

Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. For instance, with a 27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of -10 degrees C, the equivalent windchill temperature is -23 degrees C. The figure below gives the windchill factors for various temperatures and wind speeds.



Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the equivalent wind by skiing, running, being towed on skis behind a vehicle, working around aircraft that produce wind blasts.

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Medical: Psychology of Survival: Preparing Yourself

Know Yourself

Through reading, family, and friends take the time to discover who you are on the inside. Strengthen your stronger qualities and develop the areas that you know are necessary to survive.

Anticipate Fears

Don't pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking about what would frighten you the most if forced to survive alone. Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not to eliminate the fear, but to build confidence in your ability to function despite your fears.

Be Realistic

Don't be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations. See circumstances as they are, not as you want them to be. Keep your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the situation. When you go into a survival setting with unrealistic expectations, you may be laying the groundwork for bitter disappointment. Follow the adage, "Hope for the best, prepare for the worst." It is much easier to adjust to pleasant surprises about one's unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by one's unexpected harsh circumstances.

Adopt a Positive Attitude

Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for the good not only boosts morale, it also is excellent for exercising your imagination and creativity.
Remind Yourself What Is at Stake

Remember, failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with survival leads to reactions such as depression, carelessness, inattention, loss of confidence, poor decision-making, and giving up before the body gives in. At stake is your life and the lives of others who are depending on you to do your share.

Train

Through life experiences, begin today to prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of survival. Demonstrating your skills in training will give you the confidence to call upon them should the need arise. Remember, the more realistic the training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting will be.

Learn Stress Management Techniques

People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not well-trained and not prepared psychologically to face whatever the circumstances may be. While we often cannot control the survival circumstances in which we find ourselves, it is within our ability to control our response to those circumstances. Learning stress management techniques can enhance significantly your capability to remain calm and focused as you work to keep yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to develop include relaxation skills, time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring skills (the ability to control how you view a situation).

Remember, "the will to survive" can also be considered to be "the refusal to give up."

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Food: Cattail

Cattail
Typha latifolia

Description: Cattails are grasslike plants with strap-shaped leaves 1 to 5 centimeters wide and growing up to 1.8 meters tall. The male flowers are borne in a dense mass above the female flowers. These last only a short time, leaving the female flowers that develop into the brown cattail. Pollen from the male flowers is often abundant and bright yellow.

Habitat and Distribution: Cattails are found throughout most of the world. Look for them in full sun areas at the margins of lakes, streams, canals, rivers, and brackish water.

Edible Parts: The young tender shoots are edible raw or cooked. The rhizome is often very tough but is a rich source of starch. Pound the rhizome to remove the starch and use as a flour. The pollen is also an exceptional source of starch. When the cattail is immature and still green, you can boil the female portion and eat it like corn on the cob.

Other Uses: The dried leaves are an excellent source of weaving material you can use to make floats and rafts. The cottony seeds make good pillow stuffing and insulation. The fluff makes excellent tinder. Dried cattails are effective insect repellents when burned.

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Recipes

Cattail Fried Rice

This savory version of a well-known Chinese dish combines left-over rice with wild plants.
1 tablespoon toasted sesame oil
1/2 cup peeled and chopped cattail shoots
1 cup shallots, chopped
2 cloves garlic, chopped
3 cups cooked brown rice
2 tablespoons soy sauce
1 tablespoon chili paste or 1/2 teaspoon cayenne pepper

Heat the sesame oil in a large skillet over a medium flame. Add the cattails, shallots and garlic and saute for 5 minutes. Add the remaining ingredients and cook until the rice is hot. Stir frequently to prevent sticking.
Serves 4

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Raw Cattail Soup

When I was invited to a raw food potluck dinner, creating an extraordinary recipe posed a psychological challenge for me because I disagree with the theory that it’s more healthful to eat only raw food. I was quite pleased to come up with a successful raw, wild variant of a traditional iced Greek yogurt and cucumber soup. The party guests consumed it completely soon after it was served.
2-1/2 cups almonds
10 cups water, or as needed
2 cups sliced cattail shoots, thinly sliced
1/4 cup fresh spearmint leaves or other mint leaves, finely chopped
The juice of half a lemon

1. Cover the almonds with water and soak, refrigerated, 6 hours to overnight.

2. Puree the soaked almonds, about 2 cups at a time, with about 3 cups of the water at a time in a blender until all the almonds have been pureed.

3. Pour the almond-water puree into a colander lined with cheesecloth or thin nylon fabric over a bowl. Twist the top of the cloth and squeeze the remaining water.

4. Discard the pulp and mix the remaining ingredients with the almond milk. Serve chilled.

Serves 6
Preparation Time: overnight + 20 min.
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Animals: Beaver

The beaver lives by rivers where there are trees nearby. Beavers can be found from northern Canada all the way down to the southern United States.

APPEARANCE

The beaver is the largest rodent in North America. A full grown beaver can weigh from 16 to 32 kg. It can be from 60 to 80 cm. in length. Beavers has long sharp front teeth.

A beaver's tail is flat (about 30 cm. long) and covered with scales. The beaver uses the tail to steer when swimming or for balance when sitting on land. If an enemy is near, the beaver slaps its tail on the water to warn other beavers. The tail is not used to plaster mud on dams or lodges.

The beaver's legs are short. It is not able to move quickly on land. But the beaver is a strong swimmer under water and on the surface of the water. The large hind feet are webbed. The small front paws are not.

The front feet have sharp claws. The beaver uses the claws for digging up mud and stones. The beaver uses its front feet for carrying mud and branches. With its back feet the beaver spreads a waterproofing oil on its fur. The beaver's fur has to be oily to keep the animal waterproof.

The beaver has strong, sharp front teeth for cutting down trees. It chews and chews around the tree trunk till the tree falls down. The bark and leaves are eaten. The branches are used for building a dam and a home.

Beavers are hard workers. They work together to build the dam and the home. They make a pond by building the dam across a stream. The dam holds back the water and a deep pond is formed. Then the beavers build their home in the middle of the pond where they are safe from most enemies.

The beaver is well adapted for swimming. It can see well under water. Over its small eyes there is a thin see-through lid. The beaver's nostrils and ears can be closed when swimming .

The front teeth are very strong and sharp for gnawing and cutting down trees. Beavers pull smaller branches with their teeth. Bigger logs are rolled down to the pond with their front paws or their nose or the top of their heads.

WHERE FOUND & HOME

The beaver lives near wooded streams. Beavers are found in most parts of Canada (the north, the west and on the prairies). In the rest of North America the beaver's range extends from Alaska to the southern United States.

The beaver builds a home (lodge) made of mud and branches. The inside of the beaver's home consists of one or more underwater passages, a feeding area and a dry area for the nest. Most lodges are about 5 metres wide and 2 metres high. There is a fresh air hole at the top (roof) of the lodge.

The trees are dragged to the water. A dam is made of branches, mud and rocks. This dams holds back the water amd a deep pond is formed. The pond must be deep enough so water will not freeze to the bottom.

Mud is plastered on the outside of the lodge to make it strong. This prevents enemies from breaking in. The mud also helps keep the inside warm during the winter.

Beavers may also build dens or burrows along river banks. Sometimes they live in these bank burrows while they are building their lodge. The burrows are also a place to hide from enemies.

In the winter the beaver family stays inside a lodge. There can be six or more in the lodge including parents, yearlings and kits. They do not hibernate. Enough food must be stored to last all winter. The beaver's food pile of twigs and branches is at the bottom of the pond close to the entrance to the lodge. During the winter the beaver dives down to get some food.

FOOD

Beavers eat the bark and leaves of trees . Their favorite tree is the aspen. Beavers also eat grasses, berries and waterplants.

FAMILY

Beavers mate for life. Early in the summer ( May or June ) the female has a litter of three or four kits. The newborn have fur, teeth and can see and walk. The babies remain inside for about a month. The yearlings act as babysitters for the new litter. During their second year, young beavers help their parents repair the dam and lodge and gather food for winter. Young beavers stay with their parents until they are two years old.

WINTER

In the winter the beaver family stays inside the lodge. They do not hibernate. The beavers keep a pile of branches at the bottom of the pond. During the winter the hungry beaver dives down to get food.

ENEMIES

Wolves, coyotes, bears, the wolverine and lynx are enemies of the beaver. Beavers can be easily caught when they are on land. River otters have been known to slip into the lodge and kill the kits. In the winter when the water is frozen, predators can walk right up to the lodge. These animals may try to break into the lodge.

THE WETLANDS

Indians called the beaver the "sacred centre" of the land because beavers create habitats for other mammals, fish, turtles, frogs, birds and ducks. Beavers can change the landscape by damming streams. Much of the flooded area becomes wetlands. Many endangered and threatened animals rely on the wetlands for their survival.

Source and Source

Survival: Navigation

USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

The earth's relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in the east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal variation. In the northern hemisphere, the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky, or when an object casts no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this same noonday sun will mark due north. In the northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.
Shadow-Tip Methods

In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot free of brush on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists of four steps:

Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive shadow. Mark the shadow's tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always west--everywhere on earth.
Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip's new position in the same way as the first.
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right--you are now facing north. This fact is true everywhere on earth.

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line.

The Watch Method

You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch--one that has hands. The direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings time. Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you only have a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a circle of paper with the correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.

In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and the 12 o'clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 18-2). If there is any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.

In the southern hemisphere, point the watch's 12 o'clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line.

USING THE MOON

Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away from the earth's shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to identify direction.

If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west reference during the night.

USING THE STARS

Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to determine your north or south direction.
The Northern Sky

The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and Cassiopeia (Figure 18-3). Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on a clear night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms part of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. Prevent confusion by using both the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly opposite each. other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the "pointer stars" because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this line.

Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a "W" on its side. The North Star is straight out from Cassiopeia's center star.

After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly to the earth.
The Southern Sky

Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial pole, a constellation known as the Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 18-4). The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two stars that make up the cross's long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south, imagine a distance five times the distance between These stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the general direction of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night to point the way.

MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a flat double-edged razor blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully through your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in a single, thin strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and touch its ends to the battery's terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of nonmetallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it wil l align itself with a north-south line.

You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object, a nonmetallic container (for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and waterproofed, and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the needle on the pen's silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer together on the side toward the poles.

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know what they are.

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their snow, and ground snowpack is shallower. OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows completely around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer together on the side toward the poles.

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know what they are.

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their snow, and ground snowpack is shallower.

Source

Medical: Psychology of Survival: Natural Reactions

It is not surprising that the average person will have some psychological reactions in a survival situation. We will now examine some of the major internal reactions you and anyone with you might experience with the survival stressors addressed in the earlier paragraphs. Let's begin.

Fear

Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the potential to cause death, injury, or illness. This harm is not just limited to physical damage; the threat to one's emotional and mental well-being can generate fear as well. For a person trying to survive, fear can have a positive function if it encourages them to be cautious in situations where recklessness could result in injury. Unfortunately, fear can also immobilize a person. It can cause him to become so frightened that he fails to perform activities essential for survival. Most people will have some degree of fear when placed in unfamiliar surroundings under adverse conditions. There is no shame in this, they must learn to recognize their fear and start to deal with it.

Anxiety

Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for us to be afraid, it is also natural for us to experience anxiety. Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when faced with dangerous situations (physical, mental, and emotional). When used in a healthy way, anxiety urges us to act to end, or at least master, the dangers that threaten our existence. If we were never anxious, there would be little motivation to make changes in our lives. The person in a survival setting reduces their anxiety by performing those tasks that will ensure their coming through the ordeal alive. As one reduces their anxiety, they are also bringing under control the source of that anxiety--fear. In this form, anxiety is good; however, anxiety can also have a devastating impact. Anxiety can overwhelm a person to the point where they become easily confused and has difficulty thinking. Once this happens, it becomes more and more difficult to make good judgments and sound decisions.

Anger and Frustration

Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. The goal of survival is to stay alive until you can reach help or until help can reach you. To achieve this goal, the individual must complete some tasks with minimal resources. It is inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that something will go wrong; that something will happen beyond the their control; and that with one's life at stake, every mistake is magnified in terms of its importance. Thus, sooner or later, people will have to cope with frustration when a few of their plans run into trouble. One outgrowth of this frustration is anger. There are many events in a survival situation that can frustrate or anger a person. Getting lost, damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few sources of frustration and anger. Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions, irrational behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in some instances, an "I quit" attitude (people sometimes avoid doing something they can't master).

Depression

It would be a rare person indeed who would not get sad, at least momentarily, when faced with the privations of survival. As this sadness deepens, we label the feeling "depression." Depression is closely linked with frustration and anger. The frustrated person becomes more and more angry as he fails to reach his goals. If the anger does not help the person to succeed, then the frustration level goes even higher. A destructive cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn down-physically, emotionally, and mentally. When a person reaches this point, he starts to give up, and his focus shifts from "What can I do" to "There is nothing I can do." Depression is an expression of this hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing wrong with being sad as you temporarily think about your loved ones and remember what life is like back in "civilization" or "the world." Such thoughts, in fact, can give you the desire to try harder and live one more day. On the other hand, if you allow yours elf to sink into a depressed state, then it can sap all your energy and, more important, your will to survive. It is imperative that each person resist succumbing to depression.

Loneliness and Boredom

People are social animals. This means we, as human beings, enjoy the company of others. Very few people want to be alone all the time! As you are aware, there is a distinct chance of isolation in a survival setting. This is not bad. Loneliness and boredom can bring to the surface qualities you thought only others had. The extent of your imagination and creativity may surprise you. When required to do so, you may discover some hidden talents and abilities. Most of all, you may tap into a reservoir of inner strength and fortitude you never knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be another source of depression. As a person surviving alone, or with others, you must find ways to keep your mind productively occupied. Additionally, you must develop a degree of self-sufficiency. You must have faith in your capability to "go it alone."

Guilt

The circumstances leading to your being in a survival setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may be the result of an accident or military mission where there was a loss of life. Perhaps you were the only, or one of a few, survivors. While naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the deaths of others who were less fortunate. It is not uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being spared from death while others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive way, has encouraged people to try harder to survive with the belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in life. Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry on the work of those killed. Whatever reason you give yourself, do not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. The living who abandon their chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act would be the greatest tragedy.

Source

Food: Burdock

Burdock
Arctium minus & spp.

Description: These large biennial herbs stand 1 - 2.5 m tall and have broad alternate leaves with several flower heads. The leaves are ovate to oblong, even cordate and up to 50 cm long. The flowers are tubular, pink or purplish. The seeds are borne in prickly burrs.

Habitat & Distribution: The plant was introduced from Europe and now grows in waste lands throughout North America.

Edible parts & Uses: The young shoots and leaves are cooked as a green. The inner pith of the stems can be eaten raw. The roots are eaten both boiled and roasted and are often used as a coffee substitute.

An infusion of the roots is used to stimulating bile flow and has a mild laxative effect. The tea or a tincture of the roots has been used for stomach complaints and for a prolapsed uterus. A decoction of the roots is used for gout and rheumatism, to wash sores and traditionally as an antidote after eating poisonous food, especially mushrooms. The powdered seeds have been used as a diuretic. The leaves can be used as a poultice for poison ivy, poison oak, to soothe skin irritations, for impetigo, syphilis, gonorrhea and sunburn.

The seeds are an excellent diuretic. A tincture of the seed has been used as a folk remedy for joint inflammation.

NOTE: Burdock should not be given to children with pediatric complaints. There is no supporting evidence that it will benefit them.

Source

Animals: Know What's Out There: Black Bear

RANGE

* found across Canada, including the north
* found in western United States
* lives in wooded areas and mountains

APPEARANCE

* smallest bear in North America
* male can be 2 metres ( 6 ft. ) in length ; 1 metre ( 3 ft. ) to the shoulders
* not all are black, some are dark brown or rusty brown
* brown patch on the nose, stubby tail, sharp claws

ADAPTATION

* able to climb trees, wraps front legs around the trunk
bear in a tree
* eats campers' food, goes into trash cans
* sleeps during the winter, might come out on warm days

WINTER

* looks for a den under a fallen tree, in a hollow log, in a cave.
* may also dig a small hole in a hillside
* females line the den with grass and leaves
* eats alot in the fall to fatten up
* not a true hibernator
* very hungry when it comes out of the den in spring

ENEMIES AND PROTECTION

* was once hunted for sport
* now protected in some areas of Canada and the US
* illegally killed for their bladders, paws, other body parts
* has few enemies, animals are afraid to attack the bear
* strong, has powerful paws and sharp teeth
* can move fast for a short distance and can swim

THE YOUNG

* two or three cubs born every two years
* born in January or February
* newborns are naked and blind, 15 to 20 cm. long
* spend the winter in the den drinking mother's milk
* by May their coats have grown
* spend second winter with mother in the den
* cubs whine (sounds like a baby crying)

FOOD

* spend most of their time looking for food
* eat plants - twigs, buds, leaves, nuts, roots, fruit, berries, plant shoots
* also eat ants, honey, fish
* use sharp claws to tear bark from trees and to rip open rotten logs to look
for insects and grubs
* climb trees for birds' eggs and to get to beehives
* sometimes eat small mammals
* catch fish with paws or teeth
* stand up on hind legs to smell

Source

Survival: Cold Weather Survival

It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food, and shelter needs in a cold environment than in a warm environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must also have adequate protective clothing and the will to survive. The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There have been incidents when trained and well-equipped individuals have not survived cold weather situations because they lacked the will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less well-trained and equipped.

You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the cold, you must also know how to maximize the warmth you get from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can lose 40 to 45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head and even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and ankles. These areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very little insulating fat. The brain is very susceptible to cold and can stand the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood circulation in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can lose heat quickly if you do not cover your head.

There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An easy way to remember these basic principles is to use the word COLD--

C - Keep clothing clean. O - Avoid overheating. L - Wear clothes in layers. D - Keep clothing dry.

C -

Keep clothing clean. This principle is always important for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also important from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose much of their insulation value. Heat can escape more easily from the body through the clothing's crushed or filled up air pockets.

O -

Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and your clothing absorbs the moisture. This affects your warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation quality of clothing, and as sweat evaporates, your body cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do this by partially opening your parka or jacket, by removing an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy outer mittens, or by throwing back your parka hood or changing to lighter headgear. The head and hands act as efficient heat dissipaters when overheated.

L -

Wear your clothing in layers. Make sure your clothing fits properly. Wearing tight clothing and footgear restricts blood circulation and invites cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped between the layers, reducing its insulating value. Several layers of lightweight clothing are better than one equally thick layer of clothing, because the layers have dead-air space between them. The dead-air space provides extra insulation. Also, layers of clothing allow you to take off or add clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to increase warmth. However, the first layer should be a skin tight wicking layer of polypropylene or other synthetic that will draw moisture away from the body, keeping it dry.

D -

Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers of clothing can become wet from sweat and your outer layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted by body heat. Wear water repellent outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water collected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the precautions you take, there will be times when you cannot keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing may become a major problem. You can place damp socks or mittens, unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry them. In a campsite, hang damp clothing inside the shelter near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even be able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are available for drying your boots, put them between your sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will help to dry the leather.

A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down remains dry. If wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a sleeping bag, you can make one out of a tarp and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or moss. Place the dry material between two layers.

Other important survival items are a knife; matches in a waterproof container, preferably one with a flint attached; a durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground cloth and cover; flashlight; emergency foods; food gathering gear; and signaling items.

Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh. Give a good deal of thought to selecting the right equipment for survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used, test it in an "overnight backyard" environment before venturing further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather environment.

Source

Medical: Psychology of Survival: Knowing the Stresses

It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get food, make fires, and travel without the aid of standard navigational devices to live successfully through a survival situation. Some people with little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is the mental attitude of the individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important; having the will to survive is essential. Without a desk to survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and invaluable knowledge goes to waste.

There is a psychology to survival. A person in a survival environment faces many stresses that ultimately impact on their mind. These stresses can produce thoughts and emotions that, if poorly understood, can transform a confident, person into an indecisive, ineffective individual with questionable ability to survive. Thus, everyone must be aware of and be able to recognize those stresses commonly associated with survival. Additionally, it is imperative that individuals be aware of their reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival.

Before we can understand our psychological reactions in a survival setting, it is helpful to first know a little bit about stress.

Stress is not a disease that you cure and eliminate. Instead, it is a condition we all experience. Stress can be described as our reaction to pressure. It is the name given to the experience we have as we physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually respond to life's tensions.
Need for Stress

We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; it gives us chances to learn about our values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle pressure without breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it can stimulate us to do our best. Because we usually do not consider unimportant events stressful, stress can also be an excellent indicator of the significance we attach to an event--in other words, it highlights what is important to us.

We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of anything can be bad. The goal is to have stress, but not an excess of it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and organizations. Too much stress leads to distress. Distress causes an uncomfortable tension that we try to escape and, preferably, avoid. Listed below are a few of the common signs of distress you may find when faced with too much stress:

Difficulty making decisions Angry outbursts Forgetfulness Low energy level Constant worrying Propensity for mistakes

Thoughts about death or suicide Trouble getting along with others Withdrawing from others Hiding from responsibilities Carelessness

As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or discourage, move us along or stop us dead in our tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly meaningless. Stress can inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can also cause you to panic and forget all your training. Key to your survival is your ability to manage the inevitable stresses you will encounter. The survivor is the person who works with their stresses instead of letting the stresses work on them.

Survival Stressors

Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has experienced, events don't always come one at a time. Often, stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, but they produce it and are called "stressors." Stressors are the obvious cause while stress is the response. Once the body recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act to protect itself.

In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to "fight or flee." This preparation involves an internal SOS sent throughout the body. As the body responds to this SOS, several actions take place. The body releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide quick energy; breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to the blood; muscle tension increases to prepare for action; blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce bleeding from cuts; senses become more acute (hearing becomes more sensitive, eyes become big, smell becomes sharper) so that you are more aware of your surrounding and heart rate and blood pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This protective posture lets a person cope with potential dangers; however, a person cannot maintain such a level of alertness indefinitely.

Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave because another one arrives. Stressors add up. The cumulative effect of minor stressors can be a major distress if they all happen too close together. As the body's resistance to stress wears down and the sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a state of exhaustion arrives. At this point, the ability to resist stress or use it in a positive way gives out and signs of distress appear. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with them are two ingredients in the effective management of stress. Let's take a look at a few of the stressors.

Injury, Illness, or Death

Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and injury can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver, get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself. Even if illness and injury don't lead to death, they add to stress through the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by controlling the stress associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that an individual can have the courage to take the risks associated with survival tasks.

Uncertainly and Lack of Control

Some people have trouble operating in settings where everything is not clear-cut. The only guarantee in a survival situation is that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely stressful operating on limited information in a setting where you have limited control of your surroundings. This uncertainty and lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed.

Environment

Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite formidable. In survival, a person will have to contend with the stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects, dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of the challenges awaiting the individual working to survive. Depending on how one handles the stress of their environment, their surroundings can be either a source of food and protection or can be a cause of extreme discomfort leading to injury, illness, or death.

Hunger and Thirst

Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die. Thus, getting and preserving food and water takes on increasing importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases. Foraging can be a big source of stress.

Fatigue

Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you grow more tired. It is possible to become so fatigued that the act of just staying awake is stressful in itself.

Isolation

There are some advantages to facing adversity with others. Being in contact with others also provides a greater sense of security and a feeling someone is available to help if problems occur. A significant stressor in survival situations is that often a person or group has to rely solely on its own resources.

The object is not to avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of survival and make them work for you.

Source and Source 2

Food: Arrowhead

Arrowhead
Maranta and Sagittaria species

Description: The arrowhead is an aquatic plant with arrow-shaped leaves and potatolike tubers in the mud.

Habitat and Distribution: Arrowhead is found worldwide in temperate zones and the tropics. It is found in moist to wet habitats.

Edible Parts: The rootstock is a rich source of high quality starch. Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.


Source

Arrowroot (Maranta arundinaceae), powder, a/k/a Indian Arrowroot, Maranta Indica, Maranta ramosissima, Maranta Starch, Araruta or Bermuda Arrowroot. Produced from the fecula or starch of the rhizome. Arrowroot is the edible starch of several tropical plant roots. The root is peeled and grated into water, and the fine-textured starch is extracted. It can be useful as a thickener in healthcare diets where blandness and digestibility are of particular importance. It looks and feels like cornstarch and is very white. Arrowroot is used as a thickening agent for sauces, fruit pie fillings and glazes, and puddings and has no flavor. Arrowroot mixtures thicken at a lower temperature than mixtures made with flour or cornstarch. Mix Arrowroot with cool liquids before adding hot liquids, then cook until mixture thickens. Remove immediately to prevent mixture from thinning. Two teaspoons of Arrowroot can be substituted for 1 tablespoon of cornstarch. One teaspoon of Arrowroot can be substituted for 1 tablespoon of flour. Arrowroot makes clear, shimmering fruit gels and prevents ice crystals from forming in homemade ice cream. Arrowroot is used in toiletries primarily for making body powder and baby powder, along with other ingredients.

Food: This root can be eaten either raw or cooked. A tea can be made from the roots. A poultice, made from the leaves, has been helpful in stopping lactation and a poultice made from the roots helps heal wounds.

Aromatherapy & Health Uses: A poultice made from the leaves to stop lactation,and a poultice made from the root to heal wounds.
Source

Animals: Know What's Out There: The Cougar

The cougar is also known as the mountain lion, puma and panther. It is one of only three wild cats native to Canada. The other two are the bobcat and the Canada lynx. The cougar is larger than the other two and has a much longer tail.

RANGE
- western Canada (sw Alberta, interior BC, BC coast,on Vancouver Island
- endangered in eastern Canada, a few sightings in other provinces.(CWF)
- western US (and Florida), Mexico, Central & South America

HABITAT
- mountains, forests, grasslands, swamps, semi-deserts
- finds shelter in caves, rocks, bushes and thick undergrowth

APPEARANCE
size
- depends on where it lives
- adult males may be more than 2.4 m (8 ft.) from nose to tip of tail
- adult males weigh between 58 and 68 kgs (130 and 150 lbs.)
- weight of males in Alberta and British Columbia : 67 - 100 kg (150 - 220 lbs)
- adult females are smaller, may be up to 2.2 m long (7.2 ft.)
- weight of females 40 - 50kg (90 - 110 lbs)
- cougars in N.America are larger than those of Central and South America

colour:
- coat is plain, no markings
- coat colour depends on where it lives
- from sandy-brown to reddish-brown, or greyish to dark brown in colour
- darker on the back, light beige on the throat, chest, stomach and inner legs
- kittens have spots which disappear before they are a year old

other features:
- small head, dark markings around muzzle (nose)
- short rounded ears, backs of ears are black
- muscular legs, hind legs are longer
- long tail, dark at the tip (used for balance)

HUNTING FOR FOOD
- prefers to hunt in evening and at dawn
- will roam and hunt at any time
- carnivore (meat eater)
- hunts mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, moose calves
- also eats birds and smaller mammals
(porcupine, beaver, coyote, fox, hare, rabbit, raccoon, ground squirrel)
- known to kill farm animals (poultry, sheep, goats, calves, pigs, horses)
- hunts over a wide area (called territory)
- stalks prey, then leaps and knocks animal to the ground
- bites the animal's throat or neck
- covers up large kills and returns later to finish eating
- runs fast over short distances, but tires quickly

HABITS
- in rare cases, has been known to attack people
- tries to avoid people
- has many sounds, including purrs, screams, hisses, and growls
- alarm or signal is a shrill whistle

ADAPTATIONS
- good climber, makes huge leaps
- good swimmer, but swims only when necessary
- excellent sight and hearing
- long, sharp teeth for holding on to prey and cutting meat
- sharp claws for hunting (catching prey), fighting and climbing
YOUNG
- female usually gives birth every second year (late winter to early summer)
- young are called kittens or cubs
- litters average 2 to 4 (may have as many as six)
- born in a cave, den in rocks, hollow log, under an overturned tree, in thick brush.
- weigh about 200 to 450 grams at birth (7 ounces to 1 pound)
- light brown coat with dark brown spots and a ringed tail
- eyes are closed at birth, open in ten days
- blue eyes when born, change to yellow
- begin walking in two weeks
- live on mother's milk for up to three months
- can eat some meat at six weeks of age
- first mother brings them food, then teaches them to hunt
- stay with mother for the first winter, sometimes for two years

ENEMIES
- man hunts cougars with guns, poison, snares, traps, hunting dogs
- farmers and ranchers shoot the cougar to protect livestock

INTERESTING FACTS
- some native peoples in North and South America revere (honour) the cougar
- lifespan in the wild is up to 18 years
- endangered in eastern Canada and eastern US, only a few left in Florida
- hunting is regulated in Canada, western US and Mexico
- numbers in Canada 4,000 ; B.C. 3500 (most are on Vancouver Island)

Bounties (rewards) were offered for killing cougars when the settlers began arriving, because the animals attacked livestock and even people. Cougars disappeared in the east. When bounties were removed, cougars managed to survive in the west.

COUGAR ATTACKS
Cougar attacks are rare. If you encounter a cougar
- remain calm
- do not approach, do not run
- face the animal and back away slowly
- shout loudly or throw something

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Survival: Signalling

Signaling for help

Like all other survival techniques, signaling for help is a skill you should practice before you actually have to use it. If you ever find yourself lost, signaling for rescue is an option you should consider.

If you do not carry a two way communication radio, cellular phone or a whistle, you mainly will have to use visual signals. Depending on your situation and the material you have available, you can use either fire and smoke, a signal mirror, flares and flashlights or strobe lights to create your visual distress signals.

Visual signals

For best results when signaling for help, select a signal site close to your shelter with good visibility such as a clearing, hilltop or a lakeshore. Will there be a search for you? Put yourself in the searchers place. Will they be searching for you from the air or the ground? A search will probably start from your last known location and sweep over your proposed route.

SOS signal

SOS (Save Our Souls) is the best known international distress signal. Everyone should be familiar with SOS. The SOS signal can be transmitted by any method, visual or audio. The code for SOS is 3 short, 3 long and 3 short signals. Pause. Repeat the signal.

SOS signal

The SOS signal can, for instance, be constructed as a ground to air signal with rocks and logs, or whatever material you have available. At night you can use a flashlight or a strobe light to send an SOS to, for instance, an aircraft. During the day, you can use a signal mirror. If it is difficult to produce long and short signals, you should know that almost any signal repeated three times will serve as a distress signal. Use your imagination.

Signaling for help Signal fires

When signaling for help, the most noticeable signal is your fire. It is easily seen at night. During the day, the smoke from your fire can be seen for many miles. Build three fires in a triangle or in a straight line, with about 100 feet (30 m) between the fires. Three fires are an internationally recognized distress signal.

Signal mirror

On a sunny day, a mirror can be a good signaling device. Any shiny object will serve - polish your canteen cup, glasses, your belt buckle or a similar object that will reflect the sun's rays. Check your survival kit, or maybe you have a mirror sighting compass?

A flash can be seen at a great distance. Sweep the horizon during the day. If a plane approaches, don't direct the beam in the aircraft's cockpit for more than a few seconds as it may blind the pilot. Use the code for SOS.

Use your signal mirror properly when signaling for help. Determine where your signal is going, use your free hand as a sight line, in order for it to be effective, readjust it as you or the sun move around the sky.

Learn more wilderness skills

Don't risk your safety or the safety of people you care about. Make sure your wilderness trip is safe and enjoyable.

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WHEN YOU SET A SIGNAL, DO NOT LEAVE THE AREA. THAT IS WHERE SEARCH AND RESCUE WILL COME TO FIND YOU. If you are forced to move on to avoid risk, make sure you point the way of your travel but when you are finally out of the risk area STOP and re-establish your signal.

Medical: High Altitude Health Issues

There are various illnesses associated with high altitude exposure. Moving above the 1500m (4950ft) mark and higher can lead to medical issue onset. At these levels, oxygenation of the blood changes and requires acclimatization so that depending upon the rate of speed one moves upwards, predicts the changes in oxygenation and the onset of illness symptoms. Too great a speed may prevent acclimatization and further ascension is impossible without risk to life.

Altitude Illnesses include:

Altitude illness: Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS), altitude illness, hypobaropathy, or soroche, is a pathological effect of high altitude on humans, caused by acute exposure to low partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude. It commonly occurs above 2,400 metres (8,000 feet).

Extreme Hypoxia: Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole (generalized hypoxia) or a region of the body (tissue hypoxia) is deprived of adequate oxygen supply.

Hypoxemia: An abnormal deficiency in the concentration of oxygen in the blood.

Hypocapnia: Hypocapnia or hypocapnea also known as hypocarbia, sometimes incorrectly called acapnia, is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood. Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing, known as hyperventilation.

When climbing it is important to recognize the onset of symptoms that indicate something is wrong. Typical symptoms include: fatigue, dizziness, nausea, atypical sleep patterns, headaches

Other symptoms appear in more severe instances.

Food: Arnica

Arnica
Arnica spp.



Description: Arnicas are perennial herbs growing from a rootstock 2 - 5 cm long. They have erect stems and stand 15 - 60 cm tall. The leaves are opposite, simple, entire or toothed. The composite flower head is yellow and flowering is from July - August.

Distribution & Habitat: It can be found in mountainous regions throughout the Rocky Mountains. There are many species with similar properties.

Preparation & Uses: Arnica is well known as a stimulant. This herb is almost always used in the form of a tincture. It is one of the best painkillers to use for sprains, fractures, and bruising. It is effective as an external liniment and is extremely fast acting.. It should not be used if the skin is broken and the area is bleeding as it is toxic if it enters the bloodstream.

This herb should not be use internally, except under special conditions, because it can cause, among other effects, blistering of the intestinal tract.

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Animals: Animal Sign

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Survival: Camp Layout

How to Set Up Camp

The location and the way you set up your Tent can have a huge impact on your Outdoor Camping experience. It can make the difference between an unpleasant sleep and a comfortable night sleep.

Spotting a Camp Location

Finding a good camp site is essential, especially in difficult conditions. Here are some guidelines in finding a good spot and orienting your Tent:

Find a spot that is safe and protected. Stay away from mountain and hill tops as those are the places that will offer the least protection from hard winds and lightning. At the same time, do not pitch your camp on the lowest ground in the area. In case of rains, the water will flow to the lowest ground.

Find a spot that is surrounded by natural obstacles which will provide shade in hot conditions, wind breakers in windy conditions, and rain stoppers in rainy conditions. Concentrations of trees and rocks are ideal natural barriers.

If possible, camp near a stream, river, or other source of water that you can use for your dishes and cleaning up. However, make sure that you are on higher grounds and that there are no chances of flash floods.

Setting up Camp

Tent Area
In general, you will want to set up your Tent on an even surface of smooth soil or grass that allows you to easily secure your pegs.

You will want to make sure that your Tent is the highest area in its direct vicinity to keep water from entering your Tent area.

Set up your Tent firmly and evenly so that it can withstand possible strong winds that may develop overnight. For more information, read our next section on Pitching Tents.

Cooking Area
Unless conditions force you to cook inside you will want to create a special Cooking Area. It should be at least 30 feet from your Tent(s) and is located in a way that the prevailing winds will blow possible ashes and sparks away from the Tent(s) and not towards it.

As explained in our section on Avoiding Bears, you should keep all your foods in containers and wash all your utensils to prevent attracting bears and other animals. Read our section on Forest Fires for more details on responsible use of fire outdoors.

Washing Area
The washing area is where you will take baths and wash the dishes. Having it near a stream or other water source will save you time and effort. If you are going to use soaps, make sure they are biodegradable and make certain that you wash at least 300 feet away from the nearest water source. Make sure not to leave any trace. Empty soap bottles and other containers are a natural disaster.

Toilet Area
You will want to keep this area at least a few hundred feet away from your Tent and other camping areas and out of sight of your camping mates and other people. Again, make sure you are at least 300 feet away from a possible water source. Find a place with soft soil that allows you to dig a hole at least 10 inches deep where you can bury your 'contributions'. Use fuel to burn any toilet paper that you might be using. Make sure to cover up your toilet area well before breaking up camp and you might want to cover the area with stones or branches to keep other campers from digging your toilet area.

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Medical: Insect and Bee Stings

Insect & Bee Stings - Prevention & Treatment: While most people are actually more afraid about animal attacks by larger animals, it is actually insects that are to be feared more. Bees, wasps, and hornet stings are more responsible for fatalities than snakes, spiders, and scorpions combined. In this section, we will give guidelines on what to do if you are allergic to Bee Stings, how to avoid Bee Stings, and what to do if you get stung.

If you are Allergic to Bee Stings

Some people are hyper sensitive to bee stings. For them, a single sting could already be seriously life-threatening. If you know that you are hypersensitive for bee and perhaps other insect stings, check with your doctor and make sure to bring an emergency insect sting allergy kit. Your doctor will be able to cater to your exact needs. Make sure to check the expiration date of the medications on your kit since most antihistamine medicines need to be replaced after a few years.

Avoiding Bee & Other Insect Stings

Use insect repellent sprays. Most of these sprays use DEET as their active ingredient and they do a great job at repelling mosquitoes. Citronella is less aggressive for the skin but generally does not have the same repelling effect as DEET.

Do not wear any sweet smelling fragrances often found in after shaves and perfume. These often attract flies, bees, and other insects.

Insect nets are a very fine netting that keeps insects from entering while still letting air through. Insect nets are mostly used for tents but can be found in an alternate form inside the ventilation vents of pants and other clothing.

Bees will mostly attack when either trapped or agitated. Close any opening in your clothes that could trap bees between your skin and your clothing. Should you stumble on a beehive, do not be stupid and try to collect honey or disturb it in any other way.

Treating Bee & Other Insect Stings

Bees will often leave their stings in your skin when you get stung. Remove them in a scraping motion with a needle or knife and avoid handling them with your hands as this will probably squeeze more venom into your skin.

The irritation and pain from an insect sting can often be neutralized by using an insect sting ointment. So make sure to bring some if you expect to go to insect - infested areas.

People who receive multiple bee stings or are either allergic to bee stings can go into anaphylactic shock which could cause swelling, obstructing the airways. Remove the stings and use antihistamine medication immediately. Apply CPR if needed and make sure the airways are cleared.

These are the basic things you need to know about Insect and Bee Stings. Take note that it is essential to have adequate First Aid knowledge and training if you are engaged in Outdoor Activities such as Hiking so you will know what to do in case you need to administer First Aid.

Food: Arctic Willow

Arctic willow
Salix arctica

Description: The arctic willow is a shrub that never exceeds more than 60 centimeters in height and grows in clumps that form dense mats on the tundra.

Habitat and Distribution: The arctic willow is common on tundras in North America. Europe, and Asia. You can also find it in some mountainous areas in temperate regions.

Edible Parts: You can collect the succulent, tender young shoots of the arctic willow in early spring. Strip off the outer bark of the new shoots and eat the inner portion raw. You can also peel and eat raw the young underground shoots of any of the various kinds of arctic willow. Young willow leaves are one of the richest sources of vitamin C, containing 7 to 10 times more than an orange.

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Animals: Tracks

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Survival: Makeshift Shelters

Makeshift Tents & Outdoor Natural Shelters

Outdoor Natural Shelter Real Tents are of course the best protection against rough weather conditions but at times, you might find yourself outdoors without a real tent with you. You will have to be resourceful and create a shelter out of possible other equipment that you might be carrying with you should the need arise to find some protection.

Possible Shelter Building Equipment

In general, it is always a smart idea to have some basic multifunctional equipment with you that can serve as possible shelter building equipment:

Covers

You will need something preferably wind- and waterproof to function as your makeshift tent sheet. Without any such cover, you are better off just moving on until you can find some natural shelter. Possible cover sheets may include:

o Fly Sheets: Fly sheets of tents are great for makeshift shelters. They are waterproof and they already have grommets for connecting rope.

o Poncho: Many ponchos have small grommets that enable connection of a line.

o Ground Sheets/Plastic Sheets: These could be any kind of camping or other fabric and generally have no grommets. Read our next paragraph for methods of connecting rope to sheets.

Ropes / Lines

Unless you just plan to sit or lie under the sheet it will not be enough to only have a sheet. You will need some rope and something to tie the rope down to create a stand alone shelter. It is always a good idea to have a good length of strong rope/line/wire with you.

Poles / Supports

The combination of a sheet, rope, poles, and fixed natural objects will enable you to create a good makeshift shelter. Here are some common things that can be used as poles or supports:

o Walking Sticks / Hiking Poles. Have the great advantages of a smooth top grip surface which prevents the top from puncturing the sheet. Hiking Poles are extendable, giving you more flexibility in your shelter building. The tips of Hiking Poles will keep your makeshift tent poles on their place.

o Trees/Bushes. Trees offer branches and trunks that are great for tying down your lines.

o Loose Branches, Rocks, Sticks, etc. These offer some way of anchoring a line or providing weight to keep down a sheet corner. See the next paragraph on shelter building techniques for more details.

Shelter Building Techniques

Your own resourcefulness will often determine if you are able to build a shelter with the materials at your disposal and how good those shelters are. However, it helps to have some Outdoor Shelter Building tips:

Connecting a Rope to a Sheet

Without grommets, holes in a sheet will likely tear, thereby destroying your shelter. So you are better off leaving the sheet whole. Use this technique to secure a line to a sheet: Find a smooth and solid object such as a smooth rock and place them on the sheet. Wrap the object with the sheet and tie your line around the sheet underneath the object, thereby trapping the object in the sheet. The object will now act as an anchor securing the line.

Makeshift Line Anchors

In the absence of trees, bushes, rocks, or other fixed natural features, you will have to use branches or rocks as anchors. Here are some methods:

o Find a Y-shaped branch and dig in both ends into the ground to form a looped anchor.

o Tie the line to the center of a stick, dig a hole, anchor the stick to the wall of the hole, and cover up the hole.

o Tie the line to the center of a stick, and anchor the stick down with a large rock or tree trunk.

o In general, use any combination of digging in, weight anchoring, and resistance building to create a solid anchor. Try to find a location with trees or other solid natural anchor points to increase your shelter's strength and to minimize the time you have to spend to create makeshift anchor points.

Natural Shelters

Nature provides enough natural shelters. The only problem could be finding one. Especially if conditions are bad and you need to find shelter as quickly as possible, you are probably better off using mother nature's shelter building aids in your direct vicinity instead of looking for the perfect shelter. Here are some quick guidelines on Natural Shelters:

Trees: Bigger trees with a large diameter trunk will offer good protection from wind and rain. Do not stay near the trunk in case of a lightning storm. For more information, read our section on Lightning.

Caves & Rock Faces: These offer great shelter. Again, make sure not to stay at the bottom of a rock face in case of lightning and make certain that you do not venture too far inside unknown caves. For more information, read our section on Cave Survival.

These are the pointers on how to create a shelter during your Hiking trip. Resourcefulness and knowledge on the different techniques and skills in building shelter are essential so you are prepared to create some protection should the need arises.

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